Underage Prosecution

Examining how justice systems respond to youth offenses through accountability, rehabilitation, and long-term public safety outcomes.

The juvenile justice system in the United States is founded on the principle that children and adolescents should be treated differently from adults under the law. Most legal systems distinguish between children who are too young to be criminally responsible and those who, while still minors, can be held accountable for their actions. This second group is typically the focus of underage prosecution. Unlike adult courts, juvenile proceedings do not use juries since a true "jury of peers" is not possible and instead emphasize rehabilitation over punishment, often using terms such as "delinquent" rather than "guilty". (Roth Legal, 2024) Roth Legal. (2024). Juvenile crimes: How courts handle offenders under 18. Retrieved from https://www.roth-legal.com/blog/juvenile-crimes-how-courts-handle-offenders-under-18/ Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied

However, this rehabilitative ideal is not always upheld in practice. In many jurisdictions, minors can be waived into adult court, where they face significantly harsher penalties, and 46 out of 50 states allow this transfer under certain conditions. (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2015) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2015). Trying juveniles as adults. Retrieved from https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/pubs/tryingjuvasadult/transfer.html Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied At the same time, more than half of U.S. states do not define a minimum age of criminal responsibility, meaning very young children can still be prosecuted depending on the circumstances. (OJJDP, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Minimum age of criminal responsibility FAQ. Retrieved from https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/statistical-briefing-book/structure_process/faqs/qa04111 Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied

How the System Works

The process of navigating the juvenile system mirrors adult legal procedures in structure, even as it claims a different purpose. After arrest, a minor may be released with a citation or placed in a juvenile detention facility. A petition is then filed, followed by a detention hearing where a judge decides whether the youth remains in custody. In some cases, a fitness hearing determines whether the minor should be transferred to adult court. If the case proceeds, a jurisdiction hearing requires proof beyond a reasonable doubt, and a judge not a jury determines responsibility. Finally, a disposition hearing assigns consequences, ideally tailored toward rehabilitation. (Los Angeles Criminal Law Resource, 2024) Los Angeles Criminal Law Resource. (2024). Juvenile court process. Retrieved from https://childsafety.losangelescriminallawyer.pro/juvenile-court-process.html Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied

Where It Breaks Down

Despite its stated goals, the system continues to face significant challenges. Juvenile arrests have declined dramatically, dropping 74% from their mid-1990s peak. (U.S. Department of Justice, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice. (2024). Trends in youth arrests. Retrieved from https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/publications/trends-in-youth-arrests.pdf Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied Yet policies shaped by the superpredator scare of that era still influence how youth are treated today. Youth of color remain disproportionately represented in detention, making up a large majority of incarcerated juveniles, raising ongoing concerns about structural bias. (Center for Health Journalism, 2024) Center for Health Journalism. (2024). Juvenile justice system plagued by striking racial disparities health big one. Retrieved from https://centerforhealthjournalism.org/our-work/insights/juvenile-justice-system-plagued-striking-racial-disparities-health-big-one Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied

Health outcomes further highlight systemic issues. Many detained youth enter the system with urgent medical needs, and a large proportion experience mental health or substance use disorders. Research suggests that incarceration can worsen these conditions, disrupt education, and increase the likelihood of reoffending rather than reduce it. (The Sentencing Project, 2024) The Sentencing Project. (2024). Why youth incarceration fails: An updated review of the evidence. Retrieved from https://www.sentencingproject.org/reports/why-youth-incarceration-fails-an-updated-review-of-the-evidence/ Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied

These patterns suggest that, rather than fulfilling its rehabilitative mission, the juvenile justice system may be contributing to long-term harm.

Chapter 1

History of Underage Prosecution

Prosecution and punishment have long been central to justice systems, and when applied fairly, they are often seen as necessary and just. However, the prosecution of children is frequently underexamined, even though its consequences can be far more damaging than corrective. While it is true that actions carry consequences and responsibility must be taken, the nature of that punishment matters. For children in particular, punishment should follow thorough investigation and aim to guide and rehabilitate, rather than simply impose suffering without addressing underlying causes.

The Kissing Case and Its Legacy

This tension becomes clear when examining real cases. In October 1958 in Monroe, North Carolina, 9-year-old James Hanover Thompson and his 8-year-old David "Fuzzy" Simpson were playing with other white children when a kissing game began. During the game, a white girl, Sissy Sutton, kissed David on the cheek first. Later, she told her parents, who reported the incident to the police. Officers confronted the boys at gunpoint, shouting racial epithets and calling them "little rapists." The boys were beaten and believed they were going to be killed. On Halloween, officers reportedly dressed as members of the Ku Klux Klan and threatened to lynch them, intensifying the trauma. The boys were charged with assault and molestation and, under the "separate but equal" system of Jim Crow laws, were ruled guilty and sentenced to spend the rest of their childhood in a reformatory. (Zinn Education Project, 2024) Zinn Education Project. (2024). The kissing case. Retrieved from https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/the-kissing-case/ Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied

James Hanover Thompson and David Simpson after a failed hearing in the Kissing Case
Photograph of the boys after a failed hearing, which sparked national outrage. (Equal Justice Initiative, 2024) Equal Justice Initiative. (2024). The kiss. Retrieved from https://eji.org/news/the-kiss/ Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied

The case gained widespread attention through media coverage, particularly after images of the boys crying were published. The NAACP appealed to the state superior court, but the judge refused to consider evidence that could support their release and sent them back to the reformatory. Public outrage grew both nationally and internationally, ultimately pressuring Governor Luther H. Hodges to pardon the boys on February 13, 1959. (Zinn Education Project, 2024) Zinn Education Project. (2024). The kissing case. Retrieved from https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/the-kissing-case/ Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied , when influenced by racial bias and social context, can fail to protect the very children it is meant to rehabilitate.

Fear-Driven Policy

Decades later, similar tensions persisted in policy. The mid-1990s saw a peak in juvenile crime that fueled the "superpredator" scare, a widely publicized theory that warned of a generation of violent youth. This led to the passage of laws that made it easier to try juveniles as adults. (Juvenile Justice Information Exchange, 2017) Juvenile Justice Information Exchange. (2017, February 27). Juvenile justice reforms went backwards in the 90s. Retrieved from https://jjie.org/2017/02/27/juvenile-justice-reforms-went-backwards-in-the-90s/ Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied However, the predicted wave of crime never materialized, and many of these policies were enacted even as juvenile crime rates were already declining. (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2015) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2015). Trying juveniles as adults. Retrieved from https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/pubs/tryingjuvasadult/transfer.html Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied Today, many of these laws remain in place, continuing to shape how young offenders are treated and raising questions about whether fear-driven policy has had lasting consequences.

National Juvenile Justice Indicators

Change in Youth Crime Indicators, 1990-2023

Three national indicators are shown as indexed trend lines over time. Graph structure is based on the Annie E. Casey Foundation reference chart (Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2024) .

Juvenile arrests (Council on Criminal Justice, 2024) Delinquency cases (Council on Criminal Justice, 2024) Detained youth (recently admitted) (OJJDP, 2024)
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 19901995200020052010201520202023

Data compiled from: Council on Criminal Justice (Council on Criminal Justice, 2024) , Council on Criminal Justice (Council on Criminal Justice, 2024) , and OJJDP EZAJCS (OJJDP, 2024) . Graph based on Annie E. Casey Foundation chart (Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2024) .

Children make mistakes, and it is a natural part of development. Some actions are more serious than others, and in some cases, they reflect choices rather than accidents. Yet these choices are often shaped by environment, influence, and circumstances beyond a child's full control. Because children are still mentally and emotionally developing, systems of punishment should reflect that reality.

Ultimately, the goal of juvenile justice should not simply be to punish, but to provide the guidance, support, and intervention that may have been missing.

Chapter 2

Current Prosecution

Current Prosecution Pathway

While the details differ from state to state, the juvenile justice system in the United States is typically separate from the adult criminal justice system (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Juvenile justice 101. Retrieved from https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/juvenile-justice-101 Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied . After being arrested, a young person is usually either released to a parent or guardian or detained (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Juvenile justice 101. Retrieved from https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/juvenile-justice-101 Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

In 2021, 56% of youth referred to court received a hearing (OJJDP, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Court statistics. Retrieved from https://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/court/JCSCF_Display.asp Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied . If the hearing leads to adjudication, the juvenile judge, without a jury, determines whether the youth is delinquent beyond a reasonable doubt (OJJDP, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Statistical briefing book glossary. Retrieved from https://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/glossary.html Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied (Georgia, 2020) Georgia. (2020). Georgia code § 15-11-582. Retrieved from https://law.justia.com/codes/georgia/2020/title-15/chapter-11/article-6/part-10/section-15-11-582/ Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

In 2021, 48% of petitioned youth were adjudicated, and 28% of adjudicated youth were placed in a residential facility (OJJDP, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Court statistics. Retrieved from https://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/court/JCSCF_Display.asp Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied . If the youth is found delinquent and is not released, a disposition hearing determines outcomes such as release, detention, probation, or other services (Georgia Department of Juvenile Justice, 2024) Georgia Department of Juvenile Justice. (2024). Criminal justice process for juveniles. Retrieved from https://djj.georgia.gov/criminal-justice-process-juveniles Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

Juvenile court processing for a typical 1,000 delinquency cases, 2021

Note: Detail may not sum to total due to rounding. Percents are based on unrounded values.

Source: OJJDP Statistical Briefing Book. (OJJDP, 2024) December 22, 2023. Data Source: National Juvenile Court Data Archive. National Center for Juvenile Justice. Pittsburgh, PA.

In some states, including Georgia, juveniles may be prosecuted as adults for severe crimes, such as murder or armed robbery (DeKalb County District Attorney, 2024) DeKalb County District Attorney. (2024). SB 440 unit. Retrieved from https://www.dekalbda.org/divisions_special_units/special_units/sb440_unit/index.php Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied . In 2021, there were approximately 2,800 U.S. youth transferred or waived into adult criminal court (OJJDP, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Court statistics. Retrieved from https://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/court/JCSCF_Display.asp Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

The overall process is also represented in OJJDP's national pathway diagram (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Juvenile justice process diagram. Retrieved from https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/images/2021-11/flowbluemedwebalt2.gif Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

Juvenile justice process flow diagram
Flow pathway of the juvenile justice process. Taken from ojjdp.diagram_img (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2024) .
"The juvenile justice system is not part of the criminal justice system. In most jurisdictions, it includes separate judges and separate courtrooms from the adult system." (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Juvenile justice 101. Retrieved from https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/juvenile-justice-101 Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied

Overview

The Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention Act includes major protections for youth (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Juvenile justice 101. Retrieved from https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/juvenile-justice-101 Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied :

  • Juveniles should not be held in adult jails and lockups.
  • If juveniles are held in adult facilities, they cannot see or hear adult inmates.
  • Juveniles should not be detained for status offenses.
  • States must work to reduce racial and ethnic disparities within youth justice systems.

OJJDP also notes that many states use Balanced and Restorative Justice (BARJ), which focuses on public safety, youth skill development, and accountability to victims and communities (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Juvenile justice 101. Retrieved from https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/juvenile-justice-101 Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

Underage Prosecution, Pregnancy, and Risks in Detention

Criminalization of Pregnancy and Related Offenses

While underage pregnancy itself is not directly prosecuted, minors may still face criminal charges related to their pregnancy or its outcome. Laws originally designed for other purposes are often applied in these cases, particularly when a pregnancy ends or is concealed.

For example, in Nebraska, Celeste Burgess, a 17-year-old, was sentenced to "three months in jail" and "two years of probation" for disposing of a fetus after a self-managed abortion, while her mother faced up to five years in prison for assisting her (BBC News, 2023) BBC News. (2023, December 6). Nebraska teen sentenced over abortion case. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-66271537 Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

These prosecutions often rely on laws such as:

  • Abuse of a corpse
  • Concealing a birth
  • Manslaughter
  • Chemical endangerment of a child
  • Practicing medicine without a license

Although these laws are not explicitly written to target minors, they are frequently applied in situations where young individuals experience fear, lack of access to care, or limited knowledge of legal and medical systems.

Sexual Victimization of Youth in Detention

Youth placed in detention facilities face a significant risk of sexual abuse. According to the Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), 7.1% of youth in juvenile correctional facilities reported sexual victimization in 2018 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2018) Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2018). Sexual victimization reported by youth in juvenile facilities, 2018 (Summary). Retrieved from https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/svryjf18_sum.pdf Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

Although this represents a decline from earlier years - 12% in 2009 and 9.5% in 2012 - the rates remain alarmingly high (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2009) Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2009). Sexual victimization in juvenile facilities, 2009. Retrieved from https://bjs.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh236/files/media/document/svjfry09pr.pdf Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2024) Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2024). Sexual victimization in juvenile facilities. Retrieved from https://bjs.ojp.gov/document/pdca24.pdf Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

Notably, youth in juvenile facilities experience higher rates of sexual victimization than adults in prisons (4.0%) or jails (3.2%) (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2024) Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2024). Sexual victimization in juvenile facilities. Retrieved from https://bjs.ojp.gov/document/pdca24.pdf Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

Even more concerning, less than 10% of minors who experience sexual abuse report it, suggesting that actual rates may be significantly higher than documented (Child Safety Legal Resource, 2024) Child Safety Legal Resource. (2024). Minors in prison. Retrieved from https://childsafety.losangelescriminallawyer.pro/minors-in-prison.html Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

Bureau of Justice Statistics · NSYC

Percent of youth in juvenile facilities reporting sexual victimization, 2012 and 2018

Comparison across major victimization categories reported by youth in custody.

2012* 2018 † Significant difference at 95% confidence
U.S. total
†
Youth-on-youth
†
Staff sexual misconduct
†
0246810

Percent

Note: Based on 6,049 interviews of youth in 2018 and 8,707 interviews of youth in 2012. Details may not sum to totals due to youth reporting multiple types of victimization. * Comparison group. † Difference with comparison group is significant at the 95% confidence level.

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Survey of Youth in Custody, 2012 and 2018 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2024) Bureau of Justice Statistics. (2024). Sexual victimization in juvenile facilities. Retrieved from https://bjs.ojp.gov/document/pdca24.pdf Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

Risks in Adult Facilities

When juveniles are placed in adult facilities, the risks increase dramatically. Federal law notes that juveniles are five times more likely to be sexually assaulted in adult facilities than in juvenile facilities, often within the first 48 hours of incarceration (U.S. Code, 2024) U.S. Code. (2024). 34 U.S.C. § 30301. Retrieved from https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=(title:34%20section:30301%20edition:prelim) Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

This highlights the dangers of prosecuting youth as adults, particularly when considering the physical and psychological risks associated with incarceration.

Family and Pregnancy in Detention

Data from the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention shows that 12% of youth in custody report currently expecting a child, and 20% either have or are expecting children (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Youth in custody and pregnancy data. Retrieved from https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/ojjdp/227730.pdf Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

This reflects the broader reality that many incarcerated youth are navigating complex family, health, and socioeconomic challenges - factors that are often overlooked in punitive justice approaches. Related national reporting on custody-related pregnancy and birth outcomes is also tracked by the Prison Policy Initiative (Prison Policy Initiative, 2025) Prison Policy Initiative. (2025, July 1). Jail births media project. Retrieved from https://www.prisonpolicy.org/blog/2025/07/01/jail_births_media_project/ Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

Chapter 3

Current Issues Being Created by Underage Prosecution

Placeholder: Open the chapter by establishing the core issues that current prosecution practices generate for young people and communities.

"Placeholder pull quote for current issues chapter."

Placeholder: Continue exploring the downstream consequences of prosecuting minors in adult court or under punitive juvenile conditions.

Placeholder: Further analysis and examples.

The overall process is also represented in OJJDP's national pathway diagram (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, 2024) U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (2024). Juvenile justice process diagram. Retrieved from https://ojjdp.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh176/files/images/2021-11/flowbluemedwebalt2.gif Ctrl C copy link Ctrl K open source Copied .

Juvenile justice process flow diagram
Flow pathway of the juvenile justice process.

Statistics

Placeholder: Present data-driven evidence of the negative outcomes associated with prosecuting minors in adult court.

Key Statistics

  • Placeholder statistic
  • Placeholder statistic
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Bureau of Justice Statistics · NSYC

Youth Reporting Sexual Victimization in Juvenile Facilities

Percent of youth reporting, by incident type — 2012 & 2018

2012 2018 Change shown as % relative to 2012
  • Total Prevalence Rate † All sexual victimization
    -25%
    2012
    9.5%
    2018
    7.1%
  • Youth-on-Youth Victimization † Involving force or coercion
    -24%
    2012
    2.5%
    2018
    1.9%
  • Staff Sexual Misconduct † All staff-involved incidents
    -25%
    2012
    7.7%
    2018
    5.8%
  • Staff — With Force or Coercion † Force or coercion reported
    -40%
    2012
    3.5%
    2018
    2.1%
  • Staff — No Force or Coercion Willing or unknown
    -17%
    2012
    4.7%
    2018
    3.9%

Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, National Survey of Youth in Custody (NSYC), 2012 & 2018 (Table 1). † Difference from 2012 is statistically significant at the 5% significance level. * 2012 figures may not sum to subtotals due to rounding.

Placeholder: Synthesize what the data reveals about the urgency of reform.

Conclusion

Looking Forward

Placeholder: Reframe the central question of underage prosecution and draw together the threads from each chapter.

"Placeholder closing pull quote."

Placeholder: Outline the reforms that evidence suggests would produce better outcomes for youth, victims, and communities alike.

Placeholder: End with a call to action or a statement that leaves the reader with a clear sense of the stakes and the possibility of change.

References

  1. Annie E. Casey Foundation (2024). What Juvenile Justice Data Reveal and What the Numbers Can't Tell Us. Retrieved from https://www.aecf.org/blog/what-juvenile-justice-data-reveal-and-what-the-numbers-cant-tell-us
  2. BBC News (2023). Nebraska Teen Sentenced Over Abortion Case. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-66271537
  3. Bureau of Justice Statistics (2009). Sexual Victimization in Juvenile Facilities, 2009. Retrieved from https://bjs.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh236/files/media/document/svjfry09pr.pdf
  4. Bureau of Justice Statistics (2018). Sexual Victimization Reported by Youth in Juvenile Facilities, 2018. Retrieved from https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/svryjf18_sum.pdf
  5. Bureau of Justice Statistics (2024). Sexual Victimization in Juvenile Facilities. Retrieved from https://bjs.ojp.gov/document/pdca24.pdf
  6. Center for Health Journalism (2024). Juvenile Justice System Plagued by Racial and Health Disparities. Retrieved from https://centerforhealthjournalism.org/our-work/insights/juvenile-justice-system-plagued-striking-racial-disparities-health-big-one
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  8. Children's Defense Fund (2024). The State of America's Children: Youth Justice. Retrieved from https://childrensdefense.org/tools-and-resources/the-state-of-americas-children/soac-youth-justice/
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  12. Georgia (2020). Georgia Code § 15-11-582. Retrieved from https://law.justia.com/codes/georgia/2020/title-15/chapter-11/article-6/part-10/section-15-11-582/
  13. Georgia Department of Juvenile Justice (2024). Criminal Justice Process for Juveniles. Retrieved from https://djj.georgia.gov/criminal-justice-process-juveniles
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  29. The Sentencing Project (2024). Why Youth Incarceration Fails: An Updated Review of the Evidence. Retrieved from https://www.sentencingproject.org/reports/why-youth-incarceration-fails-an-updated-review-of-the-evidence/
  30. U.S. Code (2024). 34 U.S.C. § 30301. Retrieved from https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=(title:34%20section:30301%20edition:prelim)
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  33. Zinn Education Project (2024). The Kissing Case. Retrieved from https://www.zinnedproject.org/news/tdih/the-kissing-case/